Everything about Empedocles totally explained
Empedocles (
Greek: Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, ca.
490–
430 BC) was a
Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a citizen of
Agrigentum, a Greek colony in
Sicily. Empedocles' philosophy is best known for being the origin of the
cosmogenic theory of the four
classical elements. He also proposed powers called Love and Strife which would act as forces to bring about the mixture and separation of the elements. These physical speculations were part of a history of the
universe which also dealt with the origin and development of
life. Influenced by the
Pythagoreans, he supported the doctrine of
reincarnation. Some of Empedocles' work still survives today, more so than in the case of any other Presocratic philosopher. Empedocles' death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments.
Life
Empedocles was born, c.
490 BC, at
Agrigentum (Acragas) in
Sicily to a distinguished family. Very little is known about his life. His father Meto seems to have been instrumental in overthrowing the tyrant of Agrigentum, presumably
Thrasydaeus in
470 BC. Empedocles continued the
democratic tradition of his house by helping to overthrow the succeeding
oligarchic government. He is said to have been magnanimous in his support of the poor; severe in persecuting the overbearing conduct of the
aristocrats; and he even declined the sovereignty of the city when it was offered to him.
His brilliant
oratory, his penetrating knowledge of
nature, and the reputation of his marvellous powers, including the curing of
diseases, and averting
epidemics, produced many
myths and
stories surrounding his name. He was said to have been a
magician and controller of
storms, and he himself, in his famous poem
Purifications seems to have promised miraculous powers, including the destruction of
evil, the curing of
old age, and the controlling of
wind and
rain.
Empedocles was acquainted or connected by friendship with the physicians
Acron and
Pausanias, who was his
eromenos; with various
Pythagoreans; and even, it's said, with
Parmenides and
Anaxagoras. The only pupil of Empedocles who is mentioned is the
sophist and
rhetorician Gorgias.
Timaeus and
Dicaearchus spoke of the journey of Empedocles to the
Peloponnese, and of the admiration which was paid to him there; others mentioned his stay at
Athens, and in the newly-founded colony of
Thurii,
446 BC; there are also fanciful reports of him travelling far to the east to the lands of the
Magi.
According to
Aristotle, he died at the age of sixty, (c.
430 BC) even though other writers have him living up to the age of one hundred and nine. Likewise, there are myths concerning his death: a tradition, which is traced to
Heraclides Ponticus, represented him as having been removed from the
earth; whereas others had him perishing in the flames of
Mount Etna.
Works
Empedocles is considered the last Greek philosopher to write in
verse and the surviving fragments of his teaching are from two poems,
Purifications and
On Nature. Empedocles was undoubtedly acquainted with the didactic poems of
Xenophanes and
Parmenides - allusions to the latter can be found in the fragments, - but he seems to have surpassed them in the animation and richness of his style, and in the clearness of his descriptions and diction.
Aristotle called him the father of
rhetoric, and, although he acknowledged only the
meter as a point of comparison between the poems of Empedocles and the epics of
Homer, he described Empedocles as Homeric and powerful in his diction.
Lucretius speaks of him with enthusiasm, and evidently viewed him as his model. The two poems together comprised 5000 lines. About 550 lines of his poetry survive, although because ancient writers rarely mentioned which poem they were quoting, it isn't always certain to which poem the quotes belong. Some scholars now believe that there was only one poem, and that the
Purifications merely formed the beginning of
On Nature.
Purifications
We possess only about 100 lines of his
Purifications. It seems to have given a
mythical account of the world which may, nevertheless, have been part of Empedocles' philosophical system. The first lines of the poem are preserved by
Diogenes Laërtius:
Friends who inhabit the mighty town by tawny Acragas
which crowns the citadel, caring for good deeds,
greetings; I, an immortal God, no longer mortal,
wander among you, honoured by all,
adorned with holy diadems and blooming garlands.
To whatever illustrious towns I go,
I am praised by men and women, and accompanied
by thousands, who thirst for deliverance,
some ask for prophecies, and some entreat,
for remedies against all kinds of disease.
It was probably this work which contained a story about
souls, where we're told that there were once spirits who lived in a state of bliss, but having committed a
crime (the nature of which is unknown) they were punished by being forced to become mortal beings,
reincarnated from body to body.
Humans,
animals, and even
plants are such spirits. The moral conduct recommended in the poem may allow us to become like
gods again.
On Nature
There are about 450 lines of his poem
On Nature extant, including 70 lines which have been reconstructed from some papyrus scraps known as the
Strasbourg Papyrus. The poem originally consisted of 2000 lines of
hexameter verse, and was addressed to
Pausanias. It was this poem which outlined his philosophical system. In it, Empedocles explains not only the nature and history of the
universe, including his theory of the four
classical elements, but he describes theories on causation, perception, and thought, as well as explanations of
terrestrial phenomena and
biological processes.
Philosophy
Although acquainted with the theories of the
Eleatics and the
Pythagoreans, Empedocles didn't belong to any one definite school. An
eclectic in his thinking, he combined much that had been suggested by
Parmenides,
Pythagoras and the
Ionian schools. He was both a firm believer in
Orphic mysteries, as well as a
scientific thinker and a precursor of
physical science. Aristotle mentions Empedocles among the Ionic philosophers, and he places him in very close relation to the
atomist philosophers and to
Anaxagoras.
Empedocles, like the Ionian philosophers and the atomists, tried to find the basis of all
change. They did not, like
Heraclitus, consider the coming into
existence and motion as the existence of things, and rest and tranquillity as the non-existence, because they'd derived from the Eleatics the conviction that an existence couldn't pass into non-existence, and vice versa. In order to allow change to occur in the world, against the views of the Eleatics, they viewed changes as the result of mixture and separation of unalterable substances. Thus Empedocles said that a coming into existence from a non-existence, as well as a complete death and annihilation, are impossible; what we call coming into existence and death is only
mixture and separation of what was mixed.
The four elements
It was Empedocles who established four ultimate
elements which make all the structures in the world -
fire,
air,
water,
earth. Empedocles called these four elements "roots", which, in typical fashion, he also identified with the mythical names of
Zeus,
Hera,
Nestis, and
Aidoneus. Empedocles never used the term "element", which seems to have been first used by
Plato. According to the different proportions in which these four indestructible and unchangeable elements are combined with each other the difference of the structure is produced. It is in the aggregation and segregation of elements thus arising, that Empedocles, like the atomists, found the real process which corresponds to what is popularly termed growth, increase or decrease. Nothing new comes or can come into being; the only change that can occur is a change in the juxtaposition of element with element. This theory of the four elements became the standard
dogma for the next two thousand years.
Love and Strife
The four elements are, however, simple, eternal, and unalterable, and as change is the consequence of their mixture and separation, it was also necessary to suppose the existence of moving powers - to bring about mixture and separation. The four elements are eternally brought into union, and eternally parted from each other, by two divine powers,
Love and
Strife. Love explains the attraction of different forms of matter, and Strife accounts for their separation. If the elements are the content of the universe, then Love and Strife explain their variation and harmony. Love and Strife are attractive and repulsive
forces which the ordinary
eye can see working amongst
people, but which really pervade the
universe. They alternately hold empire over things, - neither, however, being ever quite absent.
The sphere of Empedocles
As the best and original state, there was a time when the pure elements and the two powers co-existed in a condition of rest and inertness in the form of a
sphere. The elements existed together in their purity, without mixture and separation, and the uniting power of Love predominated in the sphere: the separating power of Strife guarded the extreme edges of the sphere. Since that time, strife gained more sway and the bond which kept the pure elementary substances together in the sphere was dissolved. The elements became the world of phaenomena we see today, full of contrasts and oppositions, operated on by both Love and Strife. The sphere being the embodiment of pure existence is the embodiment or representative of
god. Empedocles assumed a cyclical universe whereby the elements return and prepare the formation of the sphere for the next period of the universe.
Cosmogony
Since the time of the sphere, Strife has gained more sway; and the actual world is full of contrasts and oppositions, due to the combined action of both principles. Empedocles attempted to explain the separation of elements, the formation of
earth and
sea, of
sun and
moon, of
atmosphere. He also dealt with the first origin of
plants and
animals, and with the
physiology of humans. As the elements entered into combinations, there appeared strange results -
heads without
necks,
arms without
shoulders. Then as these fragmentary structures met, there were seen
horned heads on human bodies, bodies of
oxen with human heads, and figures of
double sex. But most of these products of natural forces disappeared as suddenly as they arose; only in those rare cases where the parts were found to be
adapted to each other, did the complex structures last. Thus the organic universe sprang from spontaneous aggregations, which suited each other as if this had been intended. Soon various influences reduced the creatures of double sex to a
male and a
female, and the world was replenished with organic
life. It is possible (although
anachronistic) to see this theory as a crude anticipation of
Darwin's theory of
natural selection.
Perception and knowledge
Knowledge is explained by the principle that the elements in the things outside us are perceived by the corresponding elements in ourselves. Like is known by like. The whole body is full of
pores, (and hence
respiration takes place over the whole frame). In the organs of sense these pores are specially adapted to receive the effluences which are continually rising from bodies around us; and in this way
perception is explained. Thus in
vision, certain particles go forth from the
eye to meet similar particles given forth from the object, and the resultant contact constitutes vision. Perception isn't merely a passive
reflection of external objects.
Empedocles noted the limitation and narrowness of human perceptions. We see only a part, but fancy that we've grasped the whole. But the senses can't lead to
truth; thought and reflection must look at the thing on every side. It is the business of a
philosopher, while laying bare the fundamental difference of elements, to display the identity that exists between what seem unconnected parts of the universe.
Reincarnation
Like
Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the
transmigration of the soul. Souls can be reincarnated between humans, animals and even plants. For Empedocles, all living things were on the same spiritual plane; plants and animals are links in a chain where humans are a link too. Empedocles urged a
vegetarian lifestyle, since the bodies of animals are the dwelling places of punished souls.
Wise people, who have learned the secret of life, are next to the
divine, and their souls, free from the cycle of reincarnations are able to rest in
happiness for
eternity.
Death and literary treatments
Diogenes Laërtius records the legend that he died by throwing himself into an active
volcano (
Mount Etna in
Sicily), so that people would believe his body had vanished and he'd turned into an immortal god; however, the volcano threw back one of his bronze
sandals, revealing the deceit. Another legend has it that he threw himself in the volcano to prove to his disciples that he was immortal; he believed he'd come back as a god among man after being devoured by the fire.
In
Icaro-Menippus, a comedic dialogue written by the second century satirist
Lucian of Samosata, Empedocles’s final fate is re-evaluated. Rather than being incinerated in the fires of Mount Etna, he was carried up into the heavens by a volcanic eruption. Although a bit singed by the ordeal, Empedocles survives and continues his life on the
moon, surviving by feeding on dew.
Empedocles' death has inspired two major modern literary treatments. Empedocles's death is the subject of
Friedrich Hölderlin's play
Tod des Empedokles (
Death of Empedocles), two versions of which were written between the years 1798 and 1800. A third version was made public in 1826. In
Matthew Arnold's poem
Empedocles on Etna, a narrative of the philosopher's last hours before he jumps to his death in the crater first published in 1852, Empedocles predicts:
» To the elements it came from
Everything will return. » Our bodies to earth,
Our blood to water, » Heat to fire,
Breath to air.
In 2006, a massive underwater volcano off the coast of Sicily was named after Empedocles
(External Link
).
Further Information
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